Assessment of Crustal Deformation in Earthquake Process: An Overview
Asian Journal of Geological Research,
Page 1-10
Abstract
Crustal deformation involving displacements of Earth mass is an essential variable used in observing and modelling seismic activities. Various approaches especially the geodetic technique for measurement at a predetermined level of repetitions on the Earth is used to observe crustal deformation. The utilization of geodetic systems has significantly enhanced the manner by which crustal movement is being monitored and managed. An obvious indication is the reasonable level of accuracy, and the substantial spatiotemporal coverage achievable with the space-based technique. This paper is aimed at reviewing existing literature on the assessment of crustal deformation. First, an overview on crustal deformation is presented. This is followed by a review on instrumentation and techniques for crustal deformation assessment including Global Navigation Satellite Systems, remote sensing, and gravimetry. Finally, this review shows that geodesy in general and particularly space-enhanced techniques are characterized by improved capacity for detecting and monitoring crustal movements and deformation.
Keywords:
- Deformation
- earthquake
- fault
- InSAR
- monitoring
- seismic
- tectonics
How to Cite
Omali, T. U. (2022). Assessment of Crustal Deformation in Earthquake Process: An Overview. Asian Journal of Geological Research, 5(1), 1-10. Retrieved from https://journalajoger.com/index.php/AJOGER/article/view/30148
References
Han SC, Shum CK, Bevis M, Ji C, Kuo CK. Crustal dilatation observed by GRACE after the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake. Sci. 2006;313:658–662.
Elliot JR, Walters RJ, Wright TJ. The role of space-based observation in understanding and responding to active tectonics and earthquakes. Nat. Comm. 2016;7:13844.
Torge W, Muller J. Geodesy, fourth ed. De Gruyter, Berlin; 2012.
Attia GF. Studies of tectonic motion from Helwan-satellite laser ranging station. Int. J. Astro. and Astrophys. 2014;4:607-613.
Donnellan A, Arrowsmith R, Delong S. Spatio-temporal mapping of plate boundary faults in California using geodetic imaging. Geosci. 2017;15:1-26.
Butler RF. Applications to paleogeography. Paleomagnetism: Magnetic domains to geologic terranes. Blackwell, UK; 1992.
Cande SC, Stegman DR. Indian and African plate motions driven by the push force of the Re´union plume head. Nature. 2011;475:47–52.
Gerya TV, Stern RJ, Baes M, Sobolev SV, Whattam SA. Plate tectonics on the Earth triggered by plume-induced subduction initiation. Nature. 2015;527:221.
White R, Mckenzie D. Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts. J. Geophy. Res. 1989;94:7685–7729.
Hammond WC, Lib Z, Plaga HP, Kreemera C, Blewitt G. Integrated InSAR and GPS studies of crustal deformation in the western great basin, western United States. Int. Arch. Photogramm., Rem. Sens. and Spat. Inf. Sci. 2010;XXXVIII.
Tatcher W. How the Continents Deform: The Evidence From Tectonic Geodesy. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2009;37: 237–62.
Allen RM, Gasparini P, Kamigaichi O, Bose M. The status of earthquake early warning around the world: An introductory overview. Seism. Res. Lett. 2009;80:682-693. B¨urgmann R, Rosen PA, Fielding EJ. Synthetic aperture radar interferometry to measure Earth’s surface topography and its deformation. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2000;28:169–209.
Geiß C, Taubenböck H. Remote sensing contributing to assess earthquake risk: from a literature review towards a roadmap. Nat. Hazards. 2013;68:7-48.
Reddy CD, Arora SK, Sunil PS, Prajapati SK. Earthquake Related Deformation Cycle: Perspectives from 2004 Sumatra and 2010 Chile Mega-Earthquakes. Disaster Advances. 2011;4(2):13-21.
Barbot S, Lapusta N, Avouac JP. Under the hood of the earthquake machine: toward predictive modelling of the seismic cycle. Sci. 2012;336:707-710.
Cohen SC. Postseismic deformation due to subcrustal viscoelastic relaxation following dip-slip earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. 1984;89:4538-4544.
Masterlark T, Demets C, Wang HW, Sanchez O, Stock J. Homogeneous vs heterogeneous subduction zone models: coseismic and postseismic deformation, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001;28:4047-4050.
Melbourne T, Webb F, Stock J, Reigber C. Rapid postseismic transients in subduction zones from continuous GPS. J. Geophys. Res. 2002;107:E1-E10.
Reid HF. The mechanics of the earthquake, vol. II. In: Lawson A.C. The California earthquake of April 18, 1906, Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA, Publ. 1910;87:192.
Avouac JP. From Geodetic imaging of seismic and aseismic fault slip to dynamic modeling of the seismic cycle. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2015;43:233-271.
Savage JC, Prescott WH. The precision of theodolite distance measurement for determining fault movements. J. Geophys. Res. 1973;8:6001-6007.
Clark TA, Gordon D, Himwich WE, Mallama CM, Mallama A, Ryan JW. Determination of relative site motions in the western United States using Mark III very long baseline Interferometry. J. Geophys. Res. 1987;92:741-750.
Onyeka EC. Monitoring regional and local earth dynamics using space geodesy techniques. Nig. J. Surv. Geoinf. 2009;2: 74-86.
Zhou S, Wu Y. Earthquake geodesy for fifty years- thinking on subject development. J. Geod. Geom. Chn. 2013; 2:1-7.
Wenke SUN. Recent advances of computing coseismic deformations in theory and applications. Earthq. Sci. 2014; 27:217–227.
Ghilani CD, Wolf PR. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education International; 2008.
Melgar D, Bock Y, Sanchez D, Crowell BW. On robust and reliable automated baseline corrections for strong motion seismology. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 2013;118:1177–1187.
Jin SG, Wang J, Zhang H, Zhu W. Real-time monitoring and prediction of the total ionospheric electron content by means of GPS observations. Chin. Astron. Astrophys. 2004;28:331–337.
Jakowski N, Hoque MM, Mayer C. A new global TEC model for estimating transionospheric radio wave propagation errors. J. Geodesy. 2011;85:965–974.
Segall P, Davis JL. GPS applications for geodynamics and earthquake studies. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci. 1997;25:301–36.
Colombelli S, Allen RM, Zollo A. Application of real-time GNSS to earthquake early warning in subduction and strike-slip environments. J. Geophys. Res. 2013;118:3448–3461.
Grapenthin R, Johanson IA, Allen RM. Operational real-time GNSS-enhanced earthquake early warning. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth. 2014;119:7944–7965.
Crowell BW, Schmidt DA, Bodin P, Vidale JE, Gomberg J, Hartog JR, Kress VC, Melbourne TI, Santillan M, Minson SE, Jamison DG. Demonstration of the Cascadia G-FAST Geodetic Earthquake Early Warning System for the Nisqually, Washington, Earthquake. Seism. Res. Lett. 2016;87.
Ji C, Larson KM, Tan Y, Hudnut KW, Choi K. Slip history of the 2003 San Simeon earthquake constrained by combining 1-Hz GPS, strong motion, and teleseismic data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004;17:608.
Emore GL, Haase JS, Choi K, Larson KM, Yamagiwa A. Recovering seismic displacements through combined use of 1-Hz GPS and strong-motion accelerometers. Bull. Seimol. Soc. Am. 2007;97:357–78.
Feng W, Ren J, Jiang Z. GPS station short-term dynamic characteristics of micro displacement before Menyuan M6.4 earthquake. Geodesy and Geodynamics. 2016;7:237-244.
Weng Q. Remote sensing and GIS integration, theories, methods, and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 2010.
Duggal SK. Surveying, second ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill; P. 2004;1-435.
Parrot M. Use of satellites to detect seismo-electromagnetic effects. Adv Space Res. 1995;15:27–35.
Ouzounov D, Freund F. Mid-infrared emission prior to strong earthquakes analyzed by remote sensing data. Adv Space Res. 2004;33:267–273.
Shen X, Wu Y, Shan X. Remote sensing application in earthquake science and general propose for China earthquake satellite project. Int Prog Earthq. Sci. 2007; 8:38–45.
Lillesand T, Kiefer RW, Chipman J. Remote sensing and image interpretation, seventh ed. UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.
Omali TU. Prospects of satellite-enhanced forest monitoring for Nigeria. Int. J. Scientific & Eng. Res. 2018;9:383-388.
Filizzola C, Pergola N, Pietrapertosa C, Tramutoli V. Robust satellite techniques for seismically active areas monitoring: a sensitivity analysis on September 7, 1999 Athens's earthquake, Phys. Chem. Earth. 2004;29:517-527.
Tramutoli V, Cuomo V, Filizzola C, Pergola N, Pietrapertosa C. Assessing the potential of thermal infrared satellite surveys for monitoring seismically active areas: The case of Kocaeli (İzmit) earthquake, August 17, 1999, Remote Sens. Environ. 2005; 96:409-426.
Freund F, Keefner J, Mellon JJ, Post R, Takeuchi A, Lau BWS, La A, Ouzounov D. Enhanced Mid-Infrared Emission from Igneous Rocks under Stress. Geophysical Research Abstracts. 2005;7:09568.
Tronin AA. Thermal IR satellite sensor data application for earthquake research in China. Int. J. Remote Sensing. 2000;21: 3169-3177.
Quang Z, Xu X, Dian C. Thermal infrared anomaly precursors of impending earthquakes. Chin. Sci. Bull. 1991;36:319-323.
Gorny VI, Shilin BV. Thermal method of remote sensing for study of natural resources, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Remote Sensing Society, 1992, University of Dundee, 15-17th September 1992. Cracknell, A. P., AND VAUGHAN, R. A. (ed.). 1992;245-263.
Tronin AA. Satellite thermal survey-a new tool for the study of seismoactive regions. Int. J. Remote Sensing. 1996;17:1439-1455.
Saraf AK, Choudhury S. Earthquakes and thermal anomalies. Geosp. Today. 2005; 2:18-20.
Hu B, Wang HS, Sun YL, Hou JG, Liang J. Long-term land subsidence monitoring of Beijing (China) using the small baseline subset (SBAS) technique. Rem. Sens. 2014;6:3648–3661.
Tolomei C, Salvi S, Merryman, Boncori JP, Pezzo G. InSAR measurement of crustal deformation transients during the earthquake preparation processes: a review. Bull. Geof. Teor. Appl. 2014;56.
Zebker HA, Goldstein RM. Topographic Mapping from Interferometric SAR Observations. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1986;91:4993-4999.
Massonnet D. Satellite radar interferometry. Scientific American. 1997; 276:46-53.
Okeke FI. InSAR operational and processing steps for DEM generation. 5th FIG Regional Conference Accra, Ghana, March 8TH-11TH; 2006.
Massonnet D, Rossi M, Carmona C, Adragna F, Peltzer G, Feigl K, Rabaute T. The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry. Nature. 1993;364:138-142.
Massonnet D, Feigl K, Rossi M, Adragna F. Radar interferometric mapping of deformation in the year after the Landers earthquake. Nature. 1994;369:227–230.
Elliot JR, Nissen EK, England PC, Janckson JA, Lamb S, et al. Slip in the 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquakes, New Zealand. J. Geophys. Res. 2012;B3: B3401.
Van Camp M, De Viron O, Watlet A, Meurers B, Francis O, Caudron C. Geophysics from terrestrial time-variable gravity measurements. Reviews of Geophysics. 2017;55:938–992.
Xue X, Hu X, Hao X, Liu L. Constraining focal mechanism of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake by gravity observations. Chin J Geophys. 2012;55:3006–27.
Shen C, Li H, Tan H. Simulation of coseismic gravity changes and deformation effect of WenchuanMs 8.0 earthquake. Geodesy Geodyn. 2010;1:8–14.
Chen S, Liu M, Xing L, Xu W, Wang W, Zhu Y, Li H. Gravity increases before the 2015Mw 7.8 Nepal earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2016;43:111–117.
Chen JL, Wilson CR, Tapley BD, Grand S. GRACE detects coseismic and postseismic deformation from the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007;34:L13302.
Wang L, Shum CK, Simons FJ. Coseismic and postseismic deformation of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake constrained by GRACE gravimetry, Geophys Res Lett. 2012;39:L07301.
Fuchs MJ, Bouman J, Broerse T, Visser P, Vermeersen B. Observing coseismic gravity change from the Japan Tohoku-Oki 2011 earthquake with GOCE gravity gradiometry. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth. 2013;118:5712–5721.
Tapley BD, Bettadpur S, Watkins M, Reigber C. The gravity recovery and climate experiment: mission overview and early results. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004; 31:1-4.
Okal EA. Tsunami detection by satellite altimetry. J. GEOPHY. RES. 1999;104: 599-615.
Han SC, Sauber J, Riva R. Contribution of satellite gravimetry to understanding seismic source processes of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011;38:L24312.
Elliot JR, Walters RJ, Wright TJ. The role of space-based observation in understanding and responding to active tectonics and earthquakes. Nat. Comm. 2016;7:13844.
Torge W, Muller J. Geodesy, fourth ed. De Gruyter, Berlin; 2012.
Attia GF. Studies of tectonic motion from Helwan-satellite laser ranging station. Int. J. Astro. and Astrophys. 2014;4:607-613.
Donnellan A, Arrowsmith R, Delong S. Spatio-temporal mapping of plate boundary faults in California using geodetic imaging. Geosci. 2017;15:1-26.
Butler RF. Applications to paleogeography. Paleomagnetism: Magnetic domains to geologic terranes. Blackwell, UK; 1992.
Cande SC, Stegman DR. Indian and African plate motions driven by the push force of the Re´union plume head. Nature. 2011;475:47–52.
Gerya TV, Stern RJ, Baes M, Sobolev SV, Whattam SA. Plate tectonics on the Earth triggered by plume-induced subduction initiation. Nature. 2015;527:221.
White R, Mckenzie D. Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts. J. Geophy. Res. 1989;94:7685–7729.
Hammond WC, Lib Z, Plaga HP, Kreemera C, Blewitt G. Integrated InSAR and GPS studies of crustal deformation in the western great basin, western United States. Int. Arch. Photogramm., Rem. Sens. and Spat. Inf. Sci. 2010;XXXVIII.
Tatcher W. How the Continents Deform: The Evidence From Tectonic Geodesy. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2009;37: 237–62.
Allen RM, Gasparini P, Kamigaichi O, Bose M. The status of earthquake early warning around the world: An introductory overview. Seism. Res. Lett. 2009;80:682-693. B¨urgmann R, Rosen PA, Fielding EJ. Synthetic aperture radar interferometry to measure Earth’s surface topography and its deformation. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2000;28:169–209.
Geiß C, Taubenböck H. Remote sensing contributing to assess earthquake risk: from a literature review towards a roadmap. Nat. Hazards. 2013;68:7-48.
Reddy CD, Arora SK, Sunil PS, Prajapati SK. Earthquake Related Deformation Cycle: Perspectives from 2004 Sumatra and 2010 Chile Mega-Earthquakes. Disaster Advances. 2011;4(2):13-21.
Barbot S, Lapusta N, Avouac JP. Under the hood of the earthquake machine: toward predictive modelling of the seismic cycle. Sci. 2012;336:707-710.
Cohen SC. Postseismic deformation due to subcrustal viscoelastic relaxation following dip-slip earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. 1984;89:4538-4544.
Masterlark T, Demets C, Wang HW, Sanchez O, Stock J. Homogeneous vs heterogeneous subduction zone models: coseismic and postseismic deformation, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001;28:4047-4050.
Melbourne T, Webb F, Stock J, Reigber C. Rapid postseismic transients in subduction zones from continuous GPS. J. Geophys. Res. 2002;107:E1-E10.
Reid HF. The mechanics of the earthquake, vol. II. In: Lawson A.C. The California earthquake of April 18, 1906, Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA, Publ. 1910;87:192.
Avouac JP. From Geodetic imaging of seismic and aseismic fault slip to dynamic modeling of the seismic cycle. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2015;43:233-271.
Savage JC, Prescott WH. The precision of theodolite distance measurement for determining fault movements. J. Geophys. Res. 1973;8:6001-6007.
Clark TA, Gordon D, Himwich WE, Mallama CM, Mallama A, Ryan JW. Determination of relative site motions in the western United States using Mark III very long baseline Interferometry. J. Geophys. Res. 1987;92:741-750.
Onyeka EC. Monitoring regional and local earth dynamics using space geodesy techniques. Nig. J. Surv. Geoinf. 2009;2: 74-86.
Zhou S, Wu Y. Earthquake geodesy for fifty years- thinking on subject development. J. Geod. Geom. Chn. 2013; 2:1-7.
Wenke SUN. Recent advances of computing coseismic deformations in theory and applications. Earthq. Sci. 2014; 27:217–227.
Ghilani CD, Wolf PR. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education International; 2008.
Melgar D, Bock Y, Sanchez D, Crowell BW. On robust and reliable automated baseline corrections for strong motion seismology. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 2013;118:1177–1187.
Jin SG, Wang J, Zhang H, Zhu W. Real-time monitoring and prediction of the total ionospheric electron content by means of GPS observations. Chin. Astron. Astrophys. 2004;28:331–337.
Jakowski N, Hoque MM, Mayer C. A new global TEC model for estimating transionospheric radio wave propagation errors. J. Geodesy. 2011;85:965–974.
Segall P, Davis JL. GPS applications for geodynamics and earthquake studies. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci. 1997;25:301–36.
Colombelli S, Allen RM, Zollo A. Application of real-time GNSS to earthquake early warning in subduction and strike-slip environments. J. Geophys. Res. 2013;118:3448–3461.
Grapenthin R, Johanson IA, Allen RM. Operational real-time GNSS-enhanced earthquake early warning. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth. 2014;119:7944–7965.
Crowell BW, Schmidt DA, Bodin P, Vidale JE, Gomberg J, Hartog JR, Kress VC, Melbourne TI, Santillan M, Minson SE, Jamison DG. Demonstration of the Cascadia G-FAST Geodetic Earthquake Early Warning System for the Nisqually, Washington, Earthquake. Seism. Res. Lett. 2016;87.
Ji C, Larson KM, Tan Y, Hudnut KW, Choi K. Slip history of the 2003 San Simeon earthquake constrained by combining 1-Hz GPS, strong motion, and teleseismic data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004;17:608.
Emore GL, Haase JS, Choi K, Larson KM, Yamagiwa A. Recovering seismic displacements through combined use of 1-Hz GPS and strong-motion accelerometers. Bull. Seimol. Soc. Am. 2007;97:357–78.
Feng W, Ren J, Jiang Z. GPS station short-term dynamic characteristics of micro displacement before Menyuan M6.4 earthquake. Geodesy and Geodynamics. 2016;7:237-244.
Weng Q. Remote sensing and GIS integration, theories, methods, and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 2010.
Duggal SK. Surveying, second ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill; P. 2004;1-435.
Parrot M. Use of satellites to detect seismo-electromagnetic effects. Adv Space Res. 1995;15:27–35.
Ouzounov D, Freund F. Mid-infrared emission prior to strong earthquakes analyzed by remote sensing data. Adv Space Res. 2004;33:267–273.
Shen X, Wu Y, Shan X. Remote sensing application in earthquake science and general propose for China earthquake satellite project. Int Prog Earthq. Sci. 2007; 8:38–45.
Lillesand T, Kiefer RW, Chipman J. Remote sensing and image interpretation, seventh ed. UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.
Omali TU. Prospects of satellite-enhanced forest monitoring for Nigeria. Int. J. Scientific & Eng. Res. 2018;9:383-388.
Filizzola C, Pergola N, Pietrapertosa C, Tramutoli V. Robust satellite techniques for seismically active areas monitoring: a sensitivity analysis on September 7, 1999 Athens's earthquake, Phys. Chem. Earth. 2004;29:517-527.
Tramutoli V, Cuomo V, Filizzola C, Pergola N, Pietrapertosa C. Assessing the potential of thermal infrared satellite surveys for monitoring seismically active areas: The case of Kocaeli (İzmit) earthquake, August 17, 1999, Remote Sens. Environ. 2005; 96:409-426.
Freund F, Keefner J, Mellon JJ, Post R, Takeuchi A, Lau BWS, La A, Ouzounov D. Enhanced Mid-Infrared Emission from Igneous Rocks under Stress. Geophysical Research Abstracts. 2005;7:09568.
Tronin AA. Thermal IR satellite sensor data application for earthquake research in China. Int. J. Remote Sensing. 2000;21: 3169-3177.
Quang Z, Xu X, Dian C. Thermal infrared anomaly precursors of impending earthquakes. Chin. Sci. Bull. 1991;36:319-323.
Gorny VI, Shilin BV. Thermal method of remote sensing for study of natural resources, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Remote Sensing Society, 1992, University of Dundee, 15-17th September 1992. Cracknell, A. P., AND VAUGHAN, R. A. (ed.). 1992;245-263.
Tronin AA. Satellite thermal survey-a new tool for the study of seismoactive regions. Int. J. Remote Sensing. 1996;17:1439-1455.
Saraf AK, Choudhury S. Earthquakes and thermal anomalies. Geosp. Today. 2005; 2:18-20.
Hu B, Wang HS, Sun YL, Hou JG, Liang J. Long-term land subsidence monitoring of Beijing (China) using the small baseline subset (SBAS) technique. Rem. Sens. 2014;6:3648–3661.
Tolomei C, Salvi S, Merryman, Boncori JP, Pezzo G. InSAR measurement of crustal deformation transients during the earthquake preparation processes: a review. Bull. Geof. Teor. Appl. 2014;56.
Zebker HA, Goldstein RM. Topographic Mapping from Interferometric SAR Observations. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1986;91:4993-4999.
Massonnet D. Satellite radar interferometry. Scientific American. 1997; 276:46-53.
Okeke FI. InSAR operational and processing steps for DEM generation. 5th FIG Regional Conference Accra, Ghana, March 8TH-11TH; 2006.
Massonnet D, Rossi M, Carmona C, Adragna F, Peltzer G, Feigl K, Rabaute T. The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry. Nature. 1993;364:138-142.
Massonnet D, Feigl K, Rossi M, Adragna F. Radar interferometric mapping of deformation in the year after the Landers earthquake. Nature. 1994;369:227–230.
Elliot JR, Nissen EK, England PC, Janckson JA, Lamb S, et al. Slip in the 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquakes, New Zealand. J. Geophys. Res. 2012;B3: B3401.
Van Camp M, De Viron O, Watlet A, Meurers B, Francis O, Caudron C. Geophysics from terrestrial time-variable gravity measurements. Reviews of Geophysics. 2017;55:938–992.
Xue X, Hu X, Hao X, Liu L. Constraining focal mechanism of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake by gravity observations. Chin J Geophys. 2012;55:3006–27.
Shen C, Li H, Tan H. Simulation of coseismic gravity changes and deformation effect of WenchuanMs 8.0 earthquake. Geodesy Geodyn. 2010;1:8–14.
Chen S, Liu M, Xing L, Xu W, Wang W, Zhu Y, Li H. Gravity increases before the 2015Mw 7.8 Nepal earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2016;43:111–117.
Chen JL, Wilson CR, Tapley BD, Grand S. GRACE detects coseismic and postseismic deformation from the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007;34:L13302.
Wang L, Shum CK, Simons FJ. Coseismic and postseismic deformation of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake constrained by GRACE gravimetry, Geophys Res Lett. 2012;39:L07301.
Fuchs MJ, Bouman J, Broerse T, Visser P, Vermeersen B. Observing coseismic gravity change from the Japan Tohoku-Oki 2011 earthquake with GOCE gravity gradiometry. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth. 2013;118:5712–5721.
Tapley BD, Bettadpur S, Watkins M, Reigber C. The gravity recovery and climate experiment: mission overview and early results. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004; 31:1-4.
Okal EA. Tsunami detection by satellite altimetry. J. GEOPHY. RES. 1999;104: 599-615.
Han SC, Sauber J, Riva R. Contribution of satellite gravimetry to understanding seismic source processes of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011;38:L24312.
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